izinto ezisezingeni eliphezulu ze-titanium

Ungayithola kanjani ikhwalithi ephezulu ekucutshungulweni kwezingxenye ezingajwayelekile ze-titanium?

Ukuze uthole izinga eliphezulu ku i-titanium izingxenye ezingajwayelekile zicutshungulwa, ungaqala kokulandelayo:

1. Isiteji sokuklama:

Cabangela ngokugcwele izidingo nezimfuneko zamakhasimende ukuze uqinisekise ukuthi ukwakheka kwezingxenye ezingajwayelekile kungahlangabezana nemisebenzi ethile kanye nezimo zokusebenzisa.

Uma kucatshangelwa ukwenziwa kanye nokugcinwa kwezingxenye ezingajwayelekile, izibonelelo ezifanele zokucubungula kufanele zigcinwe ngesikhathi sokuklama futhi isakhiwo kufanele senziwe lula ukuze kube lula ukucutshungulwa nokunakekelwa.

2. Ukukhetha okubalulekile:

Ukukhetha izinto ezisezingeni eliphezulu ze-titanium kuyisisekelo sokuthuthukisa ikhwalithi isiyonke yezingxenye ezingajwayelekile. Izinto ze-Titanium kufanele zibe nezakhi zamakhemikhali ezinhle kanye nezakhiwo ezibonakalayo ukuze kuqinisekiswe ukuthi izingxenye ezicutshunguliwe zinezakhiwo ezinhle zemishini kanye nokumelana nokugqwala.

3. Ubuchwepheshe bokucubungula:

Ukusebenzisa ubuchwepheshe bokucubungula obuthuthukisiwe, obufana ne-CNC precision machining, kungathuthukisa ukunemba kokucubungula kanye nekhwalithi yendawo. Imishini ye-CNC ingaqinisekisa ukunemba kwe-dimensional nokuvumelana kwezingxenye kuyilapho kunciphisa amaphutha abantu.

Uma kucatshangelwa ubunzima bomshini we-titanium, kubalulekile ukusebenzisa amathuluzi nemingcele yokusika efanele ukwenziwa kwe-titanium. Izinto ze-Titanium athambekele emazingeni okushisa aphezulu ngesikhathi sokusebenza ngomshini, ngakho-ke kuyadingeka ukusebenzisa isipholile esisebenzayo kanye nesivinini sokusika esifanele ukulawula izinga lokushisa.

4. Ukulawulwa kwekhwalithi:

Ngesikhathi sokucubungula, izinyathelo eziqinile zokulawula ikhwalithi kufanele zisetshenziswe, okuhlanganisa ukuhlolwa kwempahla eluhlaza, ukuqapha inqubo yokucubungula, nokuhlolwa komkhiqizo ophelile.

Gcina futhi ulinganise imishini yokucubungula njalo ukuqinisekisa ukunemba nokuzinza kwemishini.

5. Ithimba lochwepheshe:

Sungula ithimba lezobuchwepheshe elinolwazi olucebile nolwazi lobuchwepheshe ku i-titanium material processing, engaxazulula ngokuphumelelayo izinkinga ezihlangabezane nazo ngesikhathi sokucubungula.

6. Ukwesekwa kochungechunge lwezimboni:

Isebenzisa uchungechunge lwezimboni zesifunda, isibonelo, i-Baoji inochungechunge lwemboni ye-titanium oluphelele, olungahlinzeka ngezinsizakalo ezibanzi nokusekelwa okuvela ezingots ze-titanium ekukhiqizeni nasekucutshungulweni kwezingxenye ze-titanium.

Okungenhla kungathuthuka kakhulu ikhwalithi ye-titanium izingxenye ezingajwayelekile zicutshungulwa futhi zihlangabezane nezidingo zezimboni ezithile zezingxenye ezingezona ezijwayelekile ezisebenza kahle.

ukunemba steel ipayipi umphakeli

Ucwaningo ngethonya lenqubo yokukhiqiza ipayipi lensimbi elinembayo ezintweni ezibonakalayo.

Ucwaningo ngethonya lenqubo yokukhiqiza ipayipi lensimbi elinembayo ezintweni ezibonakalayo

ukunemba steel ipayipi umphakeli

Njengepayipi lekhwalithi ephezulu, ipayipi lensimbi elinembile lisetshenziswa kabanzi ku-petroleum, embonini yamakhemikhali, amandla kagesi, imishini, i-aerospace, neminye imikhakha. Inqubo yokukhiqiza yayo inomthelela obalulekile ekusebenzeni kwezinto ezibonakalayo, okuhlobene ngokuqondile nekhwalithi nokuthembeka komkhiqizo. Lesi sihloko sizokwenza ucwaningo olujulile nokuhlaziya ngomthelela wenqubo yokukhiqiza amapayipi ensimbi anembayo ezintweni ezibonakalayo.

Inqubo Yokukhiqiza yamapayipi ensimbi anembayo
Izinqubo zokukhiqiza amapayipi ensimbi anembayo ikakhulukazi ahlanganisa ukugoqa okushisayo nokugoqa okubandayo. I-hot rolling ibhekisela ekugoqeni amapayipi ensimbi emazingeni okushisa aphezulu ukuze akhubazeke futhi athole umumo nosayizi oyifunayo. Cold rolling amapayipi ensimbi ekamelweni lokushisa ukuze athole izilinganiso ezinembe kakhudlwana kanye nendawo ebushelelezi. Phakathi nenqubo yokukhiqiza, ipayipi lensimbi nalo lidinga ukuqondisa, ukuhushulwa, ukucishwa, ukufutheka, nokunye ukwelashwa ukuze kuthuthukiswe ukusebenza kwawo.

Umthelela wenqubo yokukhiqiza ezintweni ezibonakalayo
1. Umthelela wenqubo yokugoqa okushisayo
Inqubo yokugoqa eshisayo inomthelela omkhulu ezintweni ezibonakalayo zamapayipi ensimbi enembile. Uma ugoqa emazingeni okushisa aphezulu, okusanhlamvu ngaphakathi kwepayipi yensimbi kuzokhubaza, ngaleyo ndlela kucwengisise okusanhlamvu futhi kuthuthukise amandla nokuqina kwezinto. Ngesikhathi esifanayo, umphumela wokuqinisa umsebenzi okhiqizwa ngesikhathi senqubo yokushisa eshisayo ungathuthukisa ubulukhuni nokugqoka ukumelana kwepayipi yensimbi. Kodwa-ke, ukukhethwa kokushisa okushisayo kanye nesikhathi kufanele kube ngokufanele, ngaphandle kwalokho amaphutha afana nokuqhekeka nezimbobo kuzovela ngaphakathi kwepayipi yensimbi, okuthinta kakhulu ukusebenza kwayo.

2. Umthelela wenqubo yokugoqa ebandayo
Uma kuqhathaniswa nokuginqika okushisayo, inqubo yokugoqa ebandayo inomthelela omncane kukho izakhiwo ezibonakalayo zokunemba kwamapayipi ensimbi. Lapho ugoqa ekamelweni lokushisa, okusanhlamvu ngaphakathi kwepayipi yensimbi ngeke kudlule ukuguqulwa okuphawulekayo, ngakho-ke ngeke kube nomphumela wokuqina womsebenzi. Kodwa-ke, ukugoqa okubandayo kungalawula ngokunembile usayizi nokuma kwamapayipi ensimbi, kuthuthukise ukunemba kwawo kanye nekhwalithi ephezulu. Ngesikhathi esifanayo, ukugoqa okubandayo okufanele kungathuthukisa amandla okuphoqeleka kanye nokungena kazibuthe kwamapayipi ensimbi, kuyenze ifaneleke kakhulu ukukhiqiza izinto ezinozibuthe ezinembayo eziphezulu, ezisebenza kakhulu.

3. Umthelela wenqubo yokudonsa
I-Annealing iyisixhumanisi esibalulekile enqubweni yokukhiqiza amapayipi ensimbi anembayo. Inhloso yayo eyinhloko ukuqeda ukucindezeleka kwangaphakathi okukhiqizwa phakathi nenqubo yokugoqa futhi wenze isakhiwo sangaphakathi sepayipi yensimbi ibe yinto efanayo futhi zizinzile. Ukulawula izinga lokushisa le-annealing nesikhathi kunethonya elikhulu ukusebenza kwamapayipi ensimbi ngokunemba. Uma izinga lokushisa le-anneal liphezulu kakhulu noma isikhathi siside kakhulu, izinhlamvu ezingaphakathi kwepayipi lensimbi zizokhula, zinciphise amandla ayo kanye nokuqina; uma izinga lokushisa le-anneal liphansi kakhulu noma isikhathi sifushane kakhulu, ukucindezeleka kwangaphakathi akukwazi ukuqedwa futhi ipayipi yensimbi izolimala ngesikhathi sokucubungula nokusetshenziswa okulandelayo. Izinkinga ezifana ne-deformation kanye nokuqhekeka zingase zenzeke kalula.

4. Umthelela wokucisha kanye nezinqubo zokushisa
Ukucisha kuyinqubo lapho ipayipi lensimbi lishiswa ngaphezu kwezinga lokushisa elibucayi bese lipholiswa ngokushesha ukuze lithole isakhiwo se-martensite. I-Tempering ishisa kabusha ipayipi lensimbi elicishiwe liye ezingeni lokushisa elithile nokuyigcina ifudumele isikhathi esithile ukuze kunzinziswe isakhiwo senhlangano futhi kuqede ukucindezeleka kwangaphakathi. Inqubo yokucisha nokushisa inomthelela omkhulu ukusebenza kwamapayipi ensimbi ngokunemba. Ukulawulwa kokushisa kokucima kanye nesikhathi kunquma ubuningi nokusabalalisa kwe-martensite, ngaleyo ndlela kuthinte ubulukhuni namandla wepayipi yensimbi; ukulawulwa kwezinga lokushisa lokushisa nesikhathi kunquma ukuzinza nokuqina kwesakhiwo senhlangano. Izinqubo ezifanele zokucisha nokushisa zingenza ukunemba kwamapayipi ensimbi abe nokuqina okuhle nokuqina kuyilapho egcina ubulukhuni obuphezulu namandla.

3. Isiphetho
The inqubo yokukhiqiza amapayipi ensimbi ngokunemba kunomthelela omkhulu ezimpahleni zabo ezibonakalayo. Izinqubo zokukhiqiza eziphusile zingenza ukunemba kwamapayipi ensimbi abe namandla amahle, ukuqina, ukuqina, ukuqina, nezinye izakhiwo ukuze kuhlangatshezwane nezimo ezihlukahlukene zesicelo eziyinkimbinkimbi nezidingeka kakhulu. Ukuthola izakhiwo zempahla ezingcono, kuyadingeka ukuqhubeka nokwandisa amapharamitha wenqubo yokukhiqiza, ukuqinisa ukulawulwa kwekhwalithi nokuhlolwa, futhi kuthuthukiswe ukusebenza kahle kokukhiqiza kanye nekhwalithi yomkhiqizo. Ngesikhathi esifanayo, kuyadingeka futhi ukuqinisa ucwaningo oluyisisekelo futhi uthole ukuqonda okujulile kokuxhumana kwangaphakathi nemithetho phakathi kwenqubo yokukhiqiza kanye nezakhiwo ezibonakalayo zamapayipi ensimbi anembile, ukunikeza ukwesekwa okuqinile kokuthuthukisa intuthuko esimeme yokunemba. imboni yamapayipi ensimbi.

Ukuhlolwa kwekhwalithi yokushisela

Ukuhlolwa kwekhwalithi yokushisela - ukuhlolwa kokuvala uphawu

Ukuhlolwa kwekhwalithi yokushisela kubhekisela ekuhlolweni kwemiphumela yokushisela, ukuqinisekisa ubuqotho, ukwethembeka, ukuphepha, nokusebenziseka kwesakhiwo esishiselwe. Ngaphezu kwezidingo zobuchwepheshe be-welding kanye nezinqubo zokushisela, ukuhlolwa kwekhwalithi ye-welding nakho kuyingxenye ebalulekile yokuphathwa kwekhwalithi yesakhiwo esihlanganisiwe.

Ake sikhulume ngendlela yokuhlola ikhwalithi yokushisela: ukuhlolwa kokuvala uphawu.

Ngakho-ke ungahlola kanjani ukuqina kwamajoyinti ashiselwe?

Ngokuvamile, izindlela ezilandelayo zingasetshenziswa ukuthola:

1. Ukuhlolwa kokucwiliswa emanzini

Isetshenziselwa iziqukathi ezincane noma amapayipi ngaphansi kwengcindezi encane yangaphakathi. Ngaphambi kokuhlolwa, qala, gcwalisa isitsha noma ipayipi ngomoya ocindezelwe ngomfutho othile (0.4-0.5MPa), bese uwucwilisa emanzini ukuze uhlole ukuvaleka. Uma kukhona ukuvuza, kufanele kube namabhamuza emanzini. Lena futhi indlela evamile yokubheka ukuthi amashubhu angaphakathi ebhayisikili ayavuza yini.

2. Ukuhlolwa kwamanzi

Sebenzisa umfutho omile okhiqizwa isisindo samanzi ukuze uhlole ukuthi kukhona yini ukuvuza esakhiweni. Ikakhulukazi esekelwe ekuhloleni okubukwayo, ifanele izakhiwo ezishiselwe ezivamile ezingekho ngaphansi kwengcindezi kodwa ezidinga ukubekwa uphawu.

3. Ukuhlolwa kokuvuza kwe-Amonia

Inhloso iyafana nokuhlolwa kokuvuza kwepompo yamalahle, futhi ukuzwela kwayo kuphakeme kunokuhlola ukuvuza kukaphalafini. Ngaphambi kokuhlolwa, qala unamathisele umugqa wephepha omhlophe noma ibhandishi elicwiliswe engxenyeni enkulu engu-5% ye-HgNO3, isixazululo esinamanzi, noma i-phenolphthalein reagent eceleni kwe-weld ukuze uyibone kalula, bese ugcwalisa isitsha nge-ammonia noma wengeze ingxenye engu-1% yevolumu. i-nitrogen ecindezelweyo. Umoya.

Uma kukhona ukuvuza, amabala azovela emgqeni wephepha elimhlophe noma ibhandeshi. Lezo ezicwiliswe ku-5% HgNO3 isixazululo samanzi amachashaza amnyama, futhi lawo acwiliswe ku-phenolphthalein reagent amachashaza abomvu.

4. Ukuhlolwa kokuvuza kukaphalafini

Isetshenziselwa izakhiwo ezishiselwe ngaphansi kwengcindezi encane yangaphakathi futhi edinga izinga elithile lokuvalwa. Uphalafini unokungeneka okuqinile futhi ulungele ukuvala ukuhlolwa kokushisela. Ngaphambi kokuhlolwa, qala ngokuxubha amanzi e-lime ohlangothini olulodwa lwe-weld ukuze ubonwe kalula, bese uxubha uphalafini ngakolunye uhlangothi lwe-weld. Uma kuneziphambeko ezingenayo, amabala kaphalafini noma amabhande kaphalafini azovela ongqimbeni lwe-lime. Isikhathi sokubuka siyi-15-30min.

Ukuhlolwa kwekhwalithi yokushisela

5. Ukuhlolwa kwe-Helium mass spectrometry

Ukuhlolwa kwe-helium mass spectrometer njengamanje kuyindlela ephumelela kakhulu yokuhlolwa kokuvala. I-helium mass spectrometer izwela kakhulu futhi ikwazi ukubona i-helium ngengxenye yevolumu engu-10-6. Ngaphambi kokuhlolwa, isitsha sigcwaliswa nge-helium, bese kutholwa ukuvuza ngaphandle kokushisela kwesitsha. Okubi ukuthi i-helium iyabiza futhi umjikelezo wokuhlola mude.

Nakuba i-helium inamandla amakhulu okungena aqine ngokwedlulele, kusathatha isikhathi eside ukungena ezikhaleni ezincane kakhulu (lezo zikhala azikwazi ukutholwa ngezinye izindlela), futhi ukutholakala kokuvuza kwezinye iziqukathi ezinezindonga eziwugqinsi ngokuvamile kuthatha amahora amaningi. Ukushisa okufanelekile kungasheshisa ukutholwa kokuvuza.

6. Ukuhlolwa kokuqina komoya

Ukuhlolwa kokuqina komoya kuyindlela yokuhlola evamile yamabhayela, imikhumbi yokucindezela, nezinye izakhiwo ezibalulekile ezishiselwe ezidinga ukucinana komoya. I-medium iwumoya ohlanzekile, futhi ingcindezi yokuhlola ngokuvamile ilingana nengcindezi yokuklama. Ukucindezela kufanele kwandiswe isinyathelo ngesinyathelo ngesikhathi sokuhlolwa.

Ngemuva kokufinyelela ingcindezi yokuklama, sebenzisa amanzi anensipho ngaphandle kwendawo yokushisela noma yokuvala futhi uhlole ukuthi amabhamuza amanzi anensipho. Ngenxa yokuthi kunengozi yokuqhuma ekuhlolweni kokuqina komoya, kufanele kwenziwe ngemuva kokuhlolwa kwengcindezi ye-hydraulic.

Ukuhlolwa kokuqina komoya kuhlukile ekuhlolweni komfutho womoya:

1. Inhloso yawo ihlukile. Ukuhlolwa kokuqina komoya ukuhlola ukucinana komkhumbi wokucindezela, futhi ukuhlolwa komfutho womoya ukuhlola amandla okumelana nokucindezela omkhumbi wokucindezela. Okwesibili, izingcindezi zokuhlola zihlukile. Ingcindezi yokuhlola ukuqina komoya ingcindezi yokuklama yesiqukathi, futhi ingcindezi yokuhlola ingcindezi yomoya iphindwe izikhathi ezingu-1.15 kunokucindezela kokuklama.

Ukuhlolwa kwengcindezi yomoya ngokuyinhloko ukuhlola amandla nokuvalwa kwemishini, futhi ukuhlolwa kokuqina komoya ngokuyinhloko ukuhlola ukuqina kwemishini, ikakhulukazi amaphutha amancane angena; ukuhlolwa kokuqina komoya kugxile kakhulu ekutheni izinto ezisetshenziswayo zinokuvuza okuncane, futhi ukuhlolwa komfutho womoya kugxile emandleni aphelele emishini.

2. Sebenzisa imidiya

Umoya uvame ukusetshenziswa ekusebenzeni kwangempela kokuhlolwa komfutho womoya. Ngokungeziwe emoyeni, ukuhlolwa kokuqina komoya kusebenzisa i-ammonia, i-halogen, noma i-helium uma okuphakathi kunobuthi obuphezulu futhi kungavumeli ukuvuza noma kulula ukungena.

3. Izesekeli zokuphepha

Ngesikhathi sokuhlolwa kwengcindezi yomoya, asikho isidingo sokufaka izesekeli zokuphepha emishinini; ukuhlolwa kokuqina komoya ngokuvamile kungenziwa ngemva kokufakwa kwezesekeli zokuphepha (imithetho yekhono).

4. Ukulandelana

Ukuhlolwa kokuqina komoya kufanele kwenziwe ngemva kokuqedwa kokuhlolwa komfutho womoya noma ukucindezela kwamanzi.

5. Ingcindezi yokuhlola

Ingcindezi yokuhlola ingcindezi yomoya iphindwe izikhathi ezingu-1.15 kunokucindezela kokuklama, futhi okokusebenza kokucindezela kwangaphakathi kudinga ukuphindaphindwa nge-coefficient yokunquma izinga lokushisa; lapho i-air tightness test medium ingumoya, ingcindezi yokuhlola ingcindezi yokuklama. Uma kusetshenziswa eminye imidiya, kufanele ilungiswe ngokwemibandela ephakathi.

6. Izikhathi zokusebenzisa

Ukuhlolwa kwe-pneumatic: Ukuhlolwa kwe-Hydraulic kuyakhethwa. Uma ukuhlolwa kwe-hydraulic kungeke kusetshenziswe ngenxa yesakhiwo semishini noma izizathu zokusekela, noma uma umthamo wemishini mkhulu, ukuhlolwa kwe-pneumatic ngokuvamile kusetshenziswa. Ukuhlolwa kokuqina komoya: Okumaphakathi kuyindawo eyingozi kakhulu noma eyingozi kakhulu, noma akukho ukuvuza okuvunyelwe.

Ukuhlolwa kwengcindezi yomoya ukuhlolwa kwengcindezi, okusetshenziselwa ukuhlola amandla okuthwala ukucindezela kwemishini. Ukuhlolwa kokuqina komoya kuwukuhlolwa kokuqina, okusetshenziselwa ukuhlola ukusebenza kokuvala okokusebenza.

insimbi engagqwali ipayipi ipayipi umphakeli

Isayensi edumile: Axhunywe kanjani amapayipi obunjiniyela bensimbi engagqwali?

Njengento ebalulekile esetshenziswa kabanzi ezimbonini zokwakha, ezobunjiniyela, nezokukhiqiza, ubuchwepheshe bokuxhuma amapayipi ensimbi engagqwali bungenye yezihluthulelo zokuqinisekisa ikhwalithi yephrojekthi nempilo yesevisi. Umhleli we insimbi engagqwali ipayipi umenzi, yethula kafushane izindlela zokuxhuma zamapayipi ensimbi engagqwali, okuhlanganisa i-welding, uxhumano lwentambo, uxhumano lwengcindezi, njll., ukukusiza ukuthi ukhethe indlela engcono kakhulu yokuxhuma efanele iphrojekthi yakho.

insimbi engagqwali ipayipi ipayipi umphakeli

1. Ukuxhumana kwe-Welding

I-Welding iyindlela evame ukusetshenziswa kakhulu yokuxhuma amapayipi ensimbi engagqwali. Ingakwazi ukuzuza ukuxhumana okuqinile ngomthamo ophezulu wokuthwala umthwalo kanye nokumelana nokugqwala. Ukuxhumana okuhlanganisiwe kwamapayipi ensimbi engagqwali kungahlukaniswa ngezinhlobo ezimbili: i-welding manual kanye ne-automated welding. I-manual welding ifaneleka kumaphrojekthi amancane noma ukuxhumeka kwamapayipi okumise okukhethekile, kuyilapho ukushisela okuzenzakalelayo kulungele amaphrojekthi amakhulu kanye nokuxhumeka kwamapayipi okuphindaphinda kakhulu.

Uma ufaka amapayipi ensimbi engagqwali, udinga ukunaka amaphuzu alandelayo: Okokuqala, khetha indlela efanele yokushisela. Ezivamile zihlanganisa i-TIG welding, i-MIG welding, i-welding kagesi, njll. Okwesibili, qinisekisa ukuhlanzeka kwendawo yokushisela ukuze ugweme ukuba khona kothuli, ukungcola nokunye ukungcola. Okokugcina, ukushisa kwangaphambi kokushisa nokulungiswa kwemingcele ye-welding kufanele kwenziwe ngaphambi kwe-welding ukuze kuqinisekiswe ikhwalithi ye-welding namandla okuxhuma.

2. Ukuxhumana okunentambo

Ukuxhumana okunentambo kuyindlela elula nethembekile yokuxhuma amapayipi ensimbi engagqwali. Ifanele amaphrojekthi wobunjiniyela anamadayimitha amapayipi amancane kanye nezingcindezi eziphansi. Ukuxhumana kwentambo yepayipi yensimbi engenasici kuhlukaniswe izinhlobo ezimbili: izintambo zangaphakathi kanye nezintambo zangaphandle. Izindinganiso ezivamile zokuxhuma intambo zihlanganisa intambo ye-Willai eyamukelwa emhlabeni wonke, intambo yepayipi elicishiwe elivame ukusetshenziswa ekhaya, njll.

Lapho wenza ukuxhunywa okunentambo kwamapayipi ensimbi engagqwali, udinga ukunaka amaphuzu alandelayo: Okokuqala, ukuvaleka kwezixhumo ezinentambo kubi, ngakho-ke ama-sealant noma ama-gaskets kudingeka asetshenziselwe ukuwavala ukuvimbela ukuvuza kwamanzi. Okwesibili, ukuxhumana okufakwe imicu kufanele kufakwe ngokunaka okusesilinganisweni, kungakhululeki kakhulu ukuze kubangele ukuvuza noma kuqine kakhulu ukuze kubangele ukuwohloka. Okokugcina, qaphela lapho uqaqa ukuze ugweme ukulimaza noma ukuhluza imicu.

3. Ukuxhumeka kwengcindezi

Ukuxhumeka kwengcindezi kuyindlela yokuxhuma amapayipi ensimbi engenasici ngokusebenzisa i-pre-pressurization. Ifanele amaphrojekthi anamadayimitha amapayipi amakhulu kanye nezingcindezi eziphakeme. Kunezinhlobo ezimbili eziyinhloko zokuxhunywa kwengcindezi yamapayipi ensimbi engagqwali: uxhumo lwesokhethi nokuxhumeka kwe-flange. Uxhumano lwesokhethi ukufaka ipayipi embobeni yokuxhuma bese ulivala ngaphansi kwengcindezi, kuyilapho uxhumano lwe-flange kuwukuxhuma amapayipi ngokusebenzisa ama-flange namabhawodi.

Lapho wenza ukuxhumeka kwengcindezi yamapayipi ensimbi engagqwali, udinga ukunaka amaphuzu alandelayo: Okokuqala, khetha izinto ezifanele zokuvala uphawu. Ezivamile zihlanganisa ama-gaskets enjoloba, ama-gaskets e-PTFE, njll. Okwesibili, izidingo zokufaka kufanele zilandelwe ngokuqinile ukuze kuqinisekiswe ukuvala nokuphepha koxhumano. Okokugcina, ukuhlolwa kufanele kwenziwe ngaphambi kokuxhumeka ukuze kuqinisekiswe ukwethembeka nokumelana ne-voltage yokuxhuma.

Ngamafuphi, uxhumano lwepayipi yensimbi engagqwali ubuchwepheshe buyisixhumanisi esibalulekile ekuqinisekiseni ikhwalithi yephrojekthi kanye nempilo yesevisi. Kungakhathaliseki ukuthi uxhumano olushiselwe, uxhumano olunentambo, noma uxhumano lwengcindezi, ludinga ukusetshenziswa ngezindlela ezifanele kanye nezidingo. Ukukhetha indlela yokuxhuma efanele akukwazi nje ukuqinisekisa ukuzinza nokuqina kwephrojekthi kodwa futhi kuthuthukise ukusebenza kahle nokuphepha komsebenzi. Ngethemba ukuthi lesi sihloko siwusizo kumaphrojekthi akho wobunjiniyela!

insimbi engagqwali hose

Iyini ipayipi lensimbi engagqwali?

Amapayipi ensimbi amelana nokucindezela kwensimbi engagqwali enziwe ngensimbi engagqwali engu-304 noma insimbi engagqwali engu-301. Asetshenziswa njengamashubhu okuvikela amasiginali wezinsimbi ezizenzakalelayo kanye namashubhu okuvikela intambo nekhebula ezinsimbini. Imininingwane isukela ku-3mm kuya ku-150mm. Ipayipi lensimbi engagqwali enobukhulu obuncane kakhulu (4mm-12mm) inikeza izixazululo zokuvikela imishini kagesi enembayo namasekhethi ezinzwa. Isetshenziselwa ukuzwa ukuvikelwa kwesifunda sababusi be-optical ngokunemba kanye nokuvikelwa kwesekethe yezinzwa zezimboni. Inokuthamba okuhle, ukumelana nokugqwala, ukumelana nezinga lokushisa eliphezulu, ukumelana nokugqokwa, namandla aqinile.

Isakhiwo sepayipi lensimbi elimelana nokucindezela kwensimbi engagqwali: lenziwe ngensimbi engenasici eboshwe ngendwangu eyodwa noma ngaphezulu yocingo lwensimbi noma imikhono yebhande lensimbi, elinamalunga noma amakhanda e-flange emikhawulweni yomibili, futhi isetshenziselwa ukuthutha izingxenye eziguquguqukayo zensimbi. abezindaba ezahlukene. Izici zepayipi lensimbi elimelana nokucindezela kwensimbi engenasici: ukumelana nokugqwala, ukumelana nezinga lokushisa eliphezulu, ukumelana nezinga lokushisa eliphansi (-196℃~+420℃), isisindo esilula, usayizi omncane, nokuguquguquka okuhle. Isetshenziswa kakhulu kwezokundiza, i-aerospace, i-petroleum, imboni yamakhemikhali, i-metallurgy, amandla kagesi, ukwenza iphepha, izinkuni, izindwangu, ukwakhiwa, imithi, ukudla, ugwayi, ezokuthutha, nezinye izimboni.

insimbi engagqwali hose
Izinyathelo zokuqapha zokufakwa kanye nokusetshenziswa kwamapayipi ensimbi amelana nokucindezela kwensimbi engagqwali:

1. Izifutho zepayipi lensimbi engagqwali zenziwe ngensimbi engagqwali ye-chromium-nickel austenitic. Uma uyisebenzisa, qaphela ukuvimbela ukugqwala kwe-pitting ye-nitrogen ions kanye nokulimala okulimazayo kwe-dilute sulfuric acid kanye ne-sulfuric acid ehlanjululwe.

2. Ngemva kokuthi abasebenzisi benze ukuhlola kwengcindezi ye-hydraulic kumishini namasistimu amapayipi afakelwe amapayipi ensimbi engagqwali, kufanele bavimbele umthelela wamabhulokhi wokugqwala kanye nokufakwa kwentlenga equkethe i-chloride, engase ibangele ukugqwala nokulimala komshini.

3. Ngesikhathi sokufakwa, i-hose yensimbi kufanele ivimbele ukushiswa kwama-splashes kanye nokulimala komshini ngesikhathi sokushisela, ngaphandle kwalokho kuzodala ukuvuza.

4. Amapayipi okufaka uphawu kufanele ahambisane ngokuqinile nezinqubo zokusebenza eziphephile ukuvimbela amapayipi ukuthi angadonki noma aqhume ngenxa yokucindezela okukhulu okubangelwa ukusebenza okungafanele noma ezinye izici.

5. Sicela ugaye ngokucophelela izibonelo zezindlela zokufaka ipayipi lensimbi engagqwali, futhi uzifake futhi uzisebenzise ngokuqinile ngohlaka olufanele.

izindawo zokusebenzisa amapayipi e-copper-nickel alloy

Yiziphi izinkambu zokufakwa kwamapayipi e-copper-nickel alloy?

Njengezinto ezinhle kakhulu zobunjiniyela, amapayipi e-copper-nickel alloy asetshenziswa kabanzi emikhakheni eminingi. Okulandelayo yizona eziyinhloko izindawo zokusebenzisa amapayipi e-copper-nickel alloy:

Imboni yamakhemikhali: Amapayipi engxubevange ye-Copper-nickel anokumelana nokugqwala okuhle kakhulu futhi angasetshenziswa ukwenza amathuluzi ahlukahlukene amakhemikhali, amapayipi, ama-valve, njll., njengama-reactors amakhemikhali, imibhoshongo ye-distillation, amalunga amapayipi, njll. Le mishini, ingavimbela ngempumelelo imithombo ye-asidi. kusuka emishinini yokugqwala futhi uqinisekise ukuzinza nokuphepha kokukhiqizwa kwamakhemikhali.

Ubunjiniyela Bamandla: bungasetshenziswa ukwenza izingxenye ezibalulekile emikhakheni yobunjiniyela bamandla njengemishini yesikhungo samandla enuzi kanye nemishini ye-petrochemical. Kule mishini, amapayipi e-copper-nickel alloy anganikeza imisebenzi enokwethenjelwa yokudlulisa uketshezi kanye nomsebenzi wokushintshanisa ukushisa, kuyilapho ekwazi ukumelana nokucindezela okuphezulu okusebenzayo kanye nokushisa okuphezulu, ukuqinisekisa ukuphepha nokusebenza kahle kokukhiqizwa kwamandla.

Ubunjiniyela bemikhumbi: babuye basetshenziswe kabanzi emkhakheni wobunjiniyela bemikhumbi. Isibonelo, kuma-condenser omkhumbi, ama-evaporator, ama-coolers, nezinye izinto zokusebenza, amapayipi e-copper-nickel alloy ingahlinzeka ngokushintshana kokushisa okusebenzayo nemisebenzi yokudlulisa uketshezi ukuze kuqinisekiswe ukusebenza okuvamile kwemikhumbi nokongiwa kwamandla kanye nokunciphisa ukungcola.

I-Aerospace: ingase futhi isetshenziselwe ukwenza izingxenye endaweni ye-aerospace, njengezinhlelo zokupholisa kanye nesistimu kaphethiloli ezinjini zezindiza. Kulezi zinhlelo, inganikeza imisebenzi enokwethenjelwa yokudlulisa uketshezi kanye nomsebenzi wokushintshanisa ukushisa, kuyilapho ikwazi ukumelana nezimo zemvelo ezinzima ezindaweni eziphakeme, iqinisekisa ukuphepha nokusebenza kwendiza.

Inkambu yokwakha: ingasetshenziswa futhi emkhakheni wokwakha, njengamapayipi okuhambisa amanzi kanye ne-drainage, amapayipi okushisa, njll ezakhiweni. Kulezi zinhlelo zokusebenza, inganikeza imisebenzi emihle kakhulu yokudlulisa uketshezi kanye nomsebenzi wokushintshanisa ukushisa, kuyilapho ikwazi ukubambisana nezinye izingxenye zesakhiwo ukuthuthukisa ukusebenza okuphelele nobuhle besakhiwo.

Inkambu ye-elekthronikhi: Amapayipi e-copper-nickel alloy ingasetshenziswa futhi ekwenzeni izingxenye ezihlukahlukene ze-elekthronikhi, njengezixhumi ze-elekthronikhi, amabhodi wesifunda, njll. Phakathi kwalezi zingxenye, amapayipi e-copper-nickel alloy anganikeza ukuhanjiswa okuhle kakhulu kagesi kanye nokushisa ukuze kuqinisekiswe ukusebenza nokuzinza kwezingxenye ze-elekthronikhi.

Njengempahla yensimbi enenani elibanzi lokufaka isicelo, ipayipi lengxubevange yethusi-nickel linamathuba abanzi okusebenza emikhakheni ehlukahlukene. Ngokuthuthuka okuqhubekayo kwesayensi nobuchwepheshe kanye nesidingo esikhulayo sezicelo, izinkambu zokusetshenziswa kwamapayipi e-copper-nickel alloy izoqhubeka nokunwebeka.

GR5 umphakeli we-titanium alloy

Ububanzi bokusebenza nokusebenza kwe-GR5 titanium alloy

Ububanzi bokusebenza nokusebenza kwe-GR5 titanium alloy

I-GR5 titanium alloy yaziwa nangokuthi i-TC4 titanium alloy. Siphinde siyibize nge-6Al4V. Lena insimbi ye-titanium esetshenziswa kakhulu. Ngokuvamile kubizwa ngokuthi i- GR5 titanium ingxubevange sisebenzisa. Inokufinyelela okuhle nokunwetshwa.

I-Titanium nama-alloys ayo anezinto eziningi ezinhle kakhulu ezifana ne-lightweight, amandla aphezulu, ukumelana nokushisa okuqinile, nokumelana nokugqwala. Zaziwa “njengensimbi yesikhathi esizayo” futhi ziyizinto ezintsha zesakhiwo ezinamathemba entuthuko athembisayo. I-Titanium nama-alloys ayo ayinazo izinto ezibaluleke kakhulu kuphela ezimbonini zezindiza kanye ne-aerospace, kodwa futhi isetshenziswe kakhulu emikhakheni eminingi yezimboni njengemboni yamakhemikhali, i-petroleum, imboni ekhanyayo, i-metallurgy, kanye nokuphehla ugesi. I-Titanium ingamelana nokugqwala komzimba womuntu futhi ayiwulimazi umzimba womuntu. Ngakho-ke ingasetshenziswa kabanzi emikhakheni yemboni yezokwelapha neyemithi. I-Titanium inezinto ezinhle zokudonsa futhi isetshenziswa kakhulu kubuchwepheshe be-electronic vacuum kanye nobuchwepheshe be-vacuum ephezulu.

GR5 umphakeli we-titanium alloy

Izakhiwo eziyishumi eziphezulu ze-GR5 titanium alloy

1. Ukuminyana okuphansi namandla athile aphezulu

Ukuminyana kwensimbi ye-titanium ngu-4.51g/cubic centimeter, ephakeme kune-aluminium futhi iphansi kunensimbi, ithusi, ne-nickel, kodwa amandla ayo athile aqala phakathi kwezinsimbi.

I-2. Ukumelana nokugqwala

I-Titanium iyinsimbi esebenza kakhulu enamandla aphansi kakhulu okulingana kanye nokuthambekela okuphezulu kokugqwala kwe-thermodynamic phakathi nendawo. Kodwa empeleni, i-titanium izinzile kakhulu emithonjeni eminingi yezindaba. Isibonelo, i-titanium imelana nokugqwala ku-oxidizing, ingathathi hlangothi futhi inciphisa kancane imidiya. Lokhu kungenxa yokuthi i-titanium inokuhlobana okukhulu nomoya-mpilo. Emoyeni noma emithonjeni yezindaba equkethe umoya-mpilo, kwakheka ifilimu eliminyene, elinamathelayo, ne-inert oxide endaweni ye-titanium, evikela i-titanium matrix ekugqwaleni. Ngisho nangenxa yokugqoka nokukhala kwemishini, izoziphilisa ngokushesha noma ivuselele. Lokhu kukhombisa ukuthi i-titanium iyinsimbi enokuthambekela okunamandla kokudlula. Ifilimu ye-titanium oxide ihlale igcina lesi sici lapho izinga lokushisa eliphakathi nendawo lingaphansi kuka-315°C.

Ukuze kuthuthukiswe ukumelana nokugqwala kwe-titanium, ubuchwepheshe bokwelapha obungaphezulu obufana ne-oxidation, i-electroplating, isifutho se-plasma, i-ion nitridation, ukufakwa kwe-ion, nokucubungula nge-laser senziwe ukuze kuthuthukiswe ukuvikelwa kwefilimu ye-titanium oxide nokuthola ukumelana nokugqwala okufunayo. Umphumela. Ukuphendula isidingo sezinto zensimbi ekukhiqizeni i-sulfuric acid, i-hydrochloric acid, isixazululo se-methylamine, i-chlorine emanzi eshisa kakhulu, kanye ne-chloride eshisa kakhulu, uchungechunge lwama-titanium alloys ukumelana nokugqwala njenge-titanium-molybdenum, i-titanium-palladium. , i-titanium-molybdenum-nickel, njll. Ingxubevange ye-Titanium-32 molybdenum isetshenziselwa ukukhiqiza i-titanium, i-titanium-0.3 molybdenum-0.8 ingxubevange ye-nickel isetshenziselwa izindawo lapho ukugqwala kwe-crevice noma ukugqwala kwe-pitting ngokuvamile kwenzeka, noma i-titanium-0.2 palladium alloy isetshenziselwa izingxenye zemishini ye-titanium, zombili ezinezinsimbi ze-titanium. isetshenziswe kahle. Umphumela.

3. Ukumelana nokushisa okuhle

Ingxubevange entsha ye-titanium ingasetshenziswa isikhathi eside emazingeni okushisa angama-600°C noma ngaphezulu.

4. Ukumelana okuhle kwezinga lokushisa eliphansi

Amandla ama-alloys e-titanium ezinga lokushisa eliphansi amelwe ingxubevange ye-titanium TA7 (Ti-5Al-2.5Sn), TC4 (I-Ti-6Al-4V), futhi i-Ti-2.5Zr-1.5Mo iyanda njengoba izinga lokushisa liyancipha, kodwa i-plasticity ayishintshi. enkulu. Igcina i-ductility enhle nokuqina emazingeni okushisa aphansi -196-253 ° C, igwema ukubola okubandayo kwensimbi. Kuyimpahla efanelekile yeziqukathi ezinezinga lokushisa eliphansi, amabhokisi okugcina, nezinye izinto zokusebenza.

5. Ukusebenza okuqinile kokulwa nokulahla

Ngemuva kokuthi insimbi ye-titanium ingaphansi kokudlidliza komshini kanye nokudlidliza kukagesi, isikhathi sayo sokunciphisa ukudlidliza side kakhulu uma siqhathaniswa nezinsimbi zensimbi nezethusi. Lesi sakhiwo se-titanium singasetshenziswa njengezimfoloko zokulungisa, izingxenye zokudlidliza zama-pulverizer ezokwelapha, namafilimu adlidlizayo ezipikha zomsindo ezisezingeni eliphezulu.

6. Non-magnetic futhi non-toxic

I-Titanium iyinsimbi engeyona enozibuthe futhi ngeke ifakwe uzibuthe endaweni enkulu kazibuthe. Ayinabuthi futhi inokuhambisana okuhle nezicubu negazi lomuntu, ngakho isetshenziswa umphakathi wezokwelapha.

7. Amandla okuqina asondelene namandla okukhiqiza

Lesi sakhiwo se-titanium sibonisa ukuthi isilinganiso samandla esivuno saso (amandla aqinile/amandla esivuno) siphezulu, okubonisa ukuthi izinto zensimbi ye-titanium zine-deformation embi yepulasitiki ngesikhathi sokwakheka. Ngenxa yesilinganiso esikhulu somkhawulo wesivuno se-titanium ku-elastic modulus, i-titanium inokuqina okukhulu ngesikhathi sokubunjwa.

8. Ukusebenza okuhle kokushintshanisa ukushisa

Nakuba i-thermal conductivity yensimbi ye-titanium iphansi kunaleyo ye-carbon steel nethusi, ngenxa yokumelana nokugqwala okuhle kwe-titanium, ukushuba kodonga kungancishiswa kakhulu, futhi indlela yokushintshanisa ukushisa phakathi kobuso nesitimu iwukufingqa okwehlayo, okunciphisa ukushisa. iqembu futhi likha phezulu kakhulu. Akukho ukukala okunganciphisa ukumelana nokushisa, kuthuthukise kakhulu ukusebenza kokudlulisa ukushisa kwe-titanium.

9. I-modulus ephansi yokunwebeka

I-elastic modulus ye-titanium ingu-106.4GPa ekamelweni lokushisa, okungama-57% ensimbi.

10. Ukusebenza kokumunca

I-Titanium iyinsimbi enamakhemikhali asebenza kakhulu futhi ingasabela ngezinto eziningi nezinhlanganisela emazingeni okushisa aphezulu. GR5 titanium ingxubevange ukuphefumula ikakhulukazi kubhekisela ekuphenduleni nge-carbon, i-hydrogen, i-nitrogen, nomoya-mpilo emazingeni okushisa aphezulu.

umphakeli wesikulufu se-titanium

Kungani kunezidingo zobulukhuni bezikulufa ze-titanium?

Ubuningi bezinhlayiya ze-titanium ngokuvamile buba ngu-4.51g/cubic centimeter, okungamaphesenti angu-60 kuphela ensimbi. Abanye amandla aphezulu we-titanium alloys idlule amandla ezinsimbi eziningi ze-alloy structural. Ngakho-ke, amandla athile (amandla/ukuminyana) we-titanium alloys makhulu kakhulu kunezinye izinto zesakhiwo sensimbi. Ingakhiqiza izingxenye ezinamandla eyunithi ephezulu, ukuqina okuhle, nesisindo esincane. Ama-alloys e-Titanium asetshenziswa ezingxenyeni zenjini yendiza, amafreyimu, izikhumba, izinsimbi, kanye nemishini yokumisa. Ngakho uma senza ngendlela oyifisayo izikulufo ze-titanium, kufanele sikhethe kanjani impahla yezikulufo? Ama-alloys e-Titanium akhiqizwa ukuze ahlangabezane nezidingo ezahlukene zemboni.

umphakeli wesikulufu se-titanium

Njengoba zonke izikulufu emhlabeni zisetshenziswa ezindaweni ezahlukahlukene futhi zisetshenziswa ezindaweni ezahlukahlukene ezingxenyeni zomshini, ubulukhuni, ukuguquguquka, ukuguquguquka okushisayo, kanye nokumelana nokugqokwa komshini. izikulufo ze-titanium ezidingwa umshini nazo zihlukile. Ngakho-ke, lapho benza ngendlela oyifisayo izinsimbi zokubopha ngezikulufo kumakhasimende, bazohlala bebuza umsebenzisi ukuthi izikulufi zisetshenziswa kuphi nokuthi hlobo luni lokusebenza okudingeka babe nalo?

Uma ubulukhuni budingeka, kunconywa ukusebenzisa i-titanium-cobalt alloy. I-Titanium-cobalt alloy ngokuvamile isetshenziselwa ukwenza amathuluzi okusika. Lapho ukhetha izinto zokwakha isikulufa se-titanium ukucubungula, kufanele uqonde ukuthi lapho ubulukhuni besikulufa buphezulu kakhulu, isikulufu se-titanium sizophuka kalula.
A

INCONEL 718 isitoko

Inqubo yokusika yezinto ezibonakalayo ze-Inconel 718

I-Inconel 718 impahla iyingxubevange ye-nickel-chromium eqiniswe ukujuluka enamandla amakhulu okuqhekeka kumazinga okushisa aphakeme afika cishe ku-700°C (1290°F). Inamandla aphakeme kune-Inconel X-750 kanye nezakhiwo ezingcono zokusebenzisa izinga lokushisa eliphansi kune-Inconel 90 ne-Inconel X-750.

INCONEL 718 isitoko

Izici zayo eziyinhloko: amandla amahle okuqhekeka kwe-creep emazingeni okushisa aphezulu.

I-Inconel 718 inokumelana okuhle nama-asidi aphilayo, izisekelo nosawoti kanye namanzi olwandle. Inokubekezelela okuhle kwe-sulfuric acid, i-hydrochloric acid, i-hydrofluoric acid, i-phosphoric acid ne-nitric acid. Ukumelana okuhle kwe-oxidation, i-carburizing, i-nitriding namandla kasawoti oncibilikisiwe. Ukumelana okuhle ne-vulcanization.

I-Inconel 718 eqiniswe ngobudala ihlanganisa amandla ezinga lokushisa eliphezulu, ukumelana nokugqwala kanye nokusebenza kahle kakhulu okufika ku-700 °C. Izakhiwo zayo zokushisela, ikakhulukazi ukumelana nokuqhekeka kwe-post-weld, zinhle kakhulu. Ngenxa yalezi zakhiwo, I-Inconel 718 impahla isetshenziswa ezingxenyeni zezinjini ze-turbine yezindiza; izingxenye ze-airframe enesivinini esikhulu njengamasondo, amabhakede, amawasha, njll.; amabhawodi nezinsimbi ezinokushisa okuphezulu, amathangi okugcina ama-cryogenic, nasekuhloleni uwoyela negesi kanye nobunjiniyela benuzi. ingxenye.

Njengoba sonke sazi, amathuluzi okusika ajwayelekile awakwazi ukusika impahla ye-Inconel 718. Ngendlela efanelekile kakhulu yokusika I-Inconel 718 ubuchwepheshe obusha bokusika izintambo zedayimane eziyindilinga. Ihluke endleleni yokusika izintambo zendabuko, ukusika i-loop wire kufaneleka kakhulu ukusika le nto eqinile futhi ephukayo. Inezinzuzo eziningi ezifana nesivinini sokusika ngokushesha, ukusebenza kahle okuphezulu, izinto ezisetshenziswayo ezincane, ukusebenza okulula nokulula, njll.

Insimbi engagqwali cutlery

Uyawazi amathiphu okwehlisa i-tableware yensimbi engagqwali?

Yimaphi amathiphu okwehlisa i-tableware yensimbi engagqwali?

Kunemikhiqizo eminingi yensimbi engagqwali phakathi kwemikhiqizo yethu yansuku zonke yasendlini, engasindi, esebenzayo, emihle, futhi kulula ukuyihlanza. Nokho, ngemva kokusebenzisa insimbi engagqwali isikhashana, kuyoba namabala amaningi anamathiselwe kuyo okunzima ukuwasusa okwesikhashana. Kunezindlela eziningi zokuhlanza izikali zensimbi engagqwali. Nawa amathiphu avamile nasebenzayo:

Insimbi engagqwali cutlery

1. Uma kunesikali se-kitchenware yensimbi engagqwali, singathenga ulamula emakethe, bese sigxoba ulamula bese siwufaka ezitsheni zasekhishini, sengeze amanzi, bese sibilisa amanzi. Ngemuva kokucwiliswa isikhashana, i-citric acid ingasusa isikali ngokushesha okukhulu. Kuhle ukususa.

2. Amagobolondo amaqanda angasusa nezikali zensimbi engagqwali. Faka amagobolondo amaqanda ezitsheni zasekhishini, bese uwabilise isikhashana, ukuze isikali esiqinile okunzima ukusikhipha sizowa ngokuzenzakalelayo, bese ugeza izitsha zekhishi zensimbi engagqwali.

3. Uviniga omhlophe ungasusa nezikali zensimbi engagqwali. Thela uviniga omhlophe namanzi ku-kitchenware yensimbi engagqwali ngesilinganiso se-1: 2, bese ubilisa amanzi bese ucwilisa amahora angaphezu kwamabili, bese ukhipha amanzi bese uwahlanza ngamanzi ahlanzekile. Yilokho kuphela.

4. Uma isikali noma amabala amanzi etholakala ezitsheni zensimbi ezingenasici ezingenakusulwa, singasebenzisa iragi bese sicwilisa uviniga ukuvala isikali cishe isigamu sehora, bese sisula ngamanzi ahlanzekile, ukuze sikwazi isusiwe. Sula isikali noma amabala amanzi.

5. Sebenzisa abahlanza insimbi engagqwali abangochwepheshe.